Heersink, C. G. (1994). Selayar and the green gold: the development of the coconut trade on an Indonesian island (1820–1950). Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25(1), 47-69.
Lintah, J. P. M. Y. L., & Padang, S. B. I. The Rapid Growth of Coconut Estates in Indragiri Hilir 1980s–1990s.
Punchihewa, P. G. (2013). The Role of the Coconut Industry (Doctoral dissertation).
Henky, N., Rompas, T., & Darwis, S. N. (1994). Coconut breeding programme in Indonesia. Coconut breeding. IPGRI, Serdang, 28-41.
Novarianto, H., & Warokka, J. (2006). Past, present and future coconut research in Indonesia. In ACIAR PROCEEDINGS (Vol. 125, p. 22). ACIAR; 1998.
Soewignyo, T. (2008). A comparison of coconut industry development in Silang and North Minahasa. JBE (Journal of Business and Economics), 141-151.
World Bank. SCDP Smallholder Coconut Development Project. Project Completion Report on Indonesia Smallholder. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/950221468048880873/pdf/multi-page.pdf
Waney, N. F., & Tujuwale, J. (2002). Traditional versus intensive coconut production in North Sulawesi. Universitas Sam Ratulangi.
Novarianto, I. H. (2021). Pembangunan Perkebunan Kelapa Hibrida Berkelanjutan. Penerbit Andi. in this book, the list of seed gardens. PTP.
ambadodangge, riau sakti, paniki, ratu, tiniawangko
Dwarf coconut varieties in Indonesia
HANDOVER W. P., 1919. - The dwarf coconut. Malayan Agric. Journ., 7: 295-297. Also Tropical agriculturist, 1920, t.54 n°1-6 p 140-142.
In 1919 in Malaysia, "Trees, thirty years old or so, occurs in different part of the peninsula and many of them are still bear abundantly". In 1912, 500 acres were planted with these Dwarf nuts at Sungei Nipah estate, on the coast between Port Dickson and Sepang Point.
Noiret J.M. 1972. Prospection cocotier à l'île de Nias, CIRAD internal report.
Tojolawa ou Toyolawa estate, Nias Island. Created in 1908 on 1500 hectares, 1000 hectares remaining in 1972, 800 ha of Tall-types and 200 ha of Dwarf types. Among Dwarf types, 60% of Yellow, 30% of Green and 10% of red.
1994. A PT Multiagro, dans la province de Lampung, la
collection a été étendue et comprend sept écotypes Nains et huit écotypes Grands. 1993. There are four main themes of experimentation in Gunung Batin 1. mineral nutrition of hybrid coconut trees: with a view to establishing the most effective possible manure schedules. The effect of nutrients and their interactions on the growth, yield and resistance to water stress of coconut palms is being studied. 2. genetic improvement of the coconut tree: crossbreeding tests have been set up. Here too, the drought resistance aspect is particularly studied. 3. cultivation techniques: planting density, land preparation, weed control, amendments, etc. ... 4. cropping associations: intercropping during the unproductive period of the hybrids (four years), but also intercropping (mainly cocoa trees) under the cover of adult coconut trees.
1990. An IRHO agronomist monitors ongoing programs: production of hybrid seeds, extension of surface areas, crop associations with cocoa, banana and food crops.
BONNEAU, X., OCHS, R., QUSAIRI, L., & NURLAINI LUBIS, L. (1993). Nutrition minérale des cocotiers hybrides sur tourbe, de la pépinière à l'entrée en production. Oléagineux (Paris), 48(1), 9-26.
OCHS, R., BONNEAU, X., & QUSAIRI, L. (1993). Nutrition minérale en cuivre des cocotiers hybrides sur tourbe. Oléagineux (Paris), 48(2), 65-76.
Bonneau, X. (1996). Optimization of mineral nutrition in a coconut plantation taking an experimental approach in situ. Experimental Agriculture, 32(4), 405-418.(Tableau intéressant sur l'intérêt de réaliser des diagnostiques foliaires).
The Riau Sakti United Plantations company has set
up an I8,000-ha hybrid coconut plantation on deep peat soils in Riau
Province, Indonesia, with technical support from IRHO/CIRAD. The first trees were
planted in December 1986, mostly PB 121 (MYD x WAT) hybrids, with a few plots of PB 111 (CRD x WAT). All the minerai elements involved, and their
interactions, are discussed, with the exception of copper.
This trace element rapidly proved to be the major factor limiting young coconut growth, and was therefore deemed
worthy of a separate article in a subsequent issue of Oléagineux.
Setelah presentasi singkat tentang alat tanam konvensional, kami menganalisis desain perkebunan kelapa kelompok baru (G3PH). Kami sampai pada kesimpulan bahwa kepadatan tanam yang diusulkan selama ini berlebihan. kami kemudian mengusulkan berbagai solusi inovatif. Beberapa hanya terdiri dari memisahkan kelompok pohon kelapa untuk mencapai kepadatan tanam yang lebih sesuai. Yang lain kemudian mengeksplorasi berbagai pengaturan penanaman dalam kelompok tiga atau empat pohon kelapa (G4K1, G3K1), dengan eliminasi progresif dari pohon kelapa yang paling tidak produktif untuk meningkatkan nilai genetik dan produktivitas perkebunan. Akhirnya, kami menentukan situasi di mana sistem penanaman kelompok ini paling tepat, dan peningkatan hasil atau ketahanan yang dapat diharapkan.
After a brief presentation of conventional planting devices, we analyze a new group coconut plantation design (G3PH). We come to the conclusion that the planting density proposed so far is excessive. we then proposes various innovative solutions. Some consist only of separating groups of coconut palms in order to reach more appropriate planting densities. Others then explore various planting arrangements in groups of three or four coconut palms (G4K1, G3K1), with the progressive elimination of the least productive coconut palms to increase the genetic value and the productivity of the plantation. Finally, we specifies the situations in which these group planting systems are most appropriate, and the increases in yield or resilience that can be expected.
For illustrating this section, we can produce on request at least one large size HD poster (up to 180x100 cm in size). Such poster should be adapted to each country, on a case-by-case basis.
In large plantations, there is an advantage in providing continuous picking of the entire plantation, which requires the provision of roads and tracks with widths corresponding to the spacing of lines of coconut trees. Possible options are as follows:
Square system – Palms are set at fixed equal distance at the corner of each square, the distance between palms in each row and the distance between adjacent rows being the same.
Triangular system – Palms are set at fixed distance at the corners of an equilateral triangle. About 15% more palms can be accommodated per unit area under this system, and this is the most common method presently used for both coconut and oil palm.
Rectangular system – Rows are set at right angles to one another but the distance between the palms in the row is closer than those between the rows. This system provides for a slightly lower number of palms in a stand but allows for more room for growing intercrops.
Quincunx system – This system is used for replanting old coconut plantations where the old palms will be removed as soon as the new seedlings are established. Seedlings are planted in the center of each square of old palms.
As shown in the drawing hereunder, they are more planting designs, generally used for intercropping.
2. The new method G3PH "Group of three palms per hill".
This method seems to have many advantages, as shown in a video, posted by Louise Adams, environmental adviser at the Union Wallonne des Entreprises, University of Louvain, Belgium. It seems that the technique was first developed in the Philippines (to be confirmed).
In 2018, we were surprised to observe this planting design in the Dominican Republic. It was planted long before the related video and papers are published, which shows that imaginative and enterprising farmers can have the same great ideas!
Nevertheless, the analysis conducted by the expert, provided under, seems to indicates that the design proposed in this video use an excessive planting density.
Representation of the G3PH planting design
as proposed by Louise Adams
In the GPH3 model, this calculation indicates that, with a distance of 10 m between the groups, the plantation density is 303 palm trees per hectare. According to the expert's opinion, this density is far too high: the coconut palms will compete with each other, compete for water, soil nutrients and light, increase their vertical growth and reduce their fruit production. They will intercept almost all light, making intercropping as adults nearly impossible. Soil will deplete from overuse. The optimum density for tall type varieties is 143 palms per hectare. The optimum density for hybrids is 160 to 180 palms per hectare.
3. Improvement of the G3PH model proposed by Louise Adams
We have studied various possibilities to reduce planting density. One possibility would be, for example, to leave a distance of 12.5 m between groups of three palm trees. Thus, the hectare will include 9x9 groups of 3 palm trees minus 48 border palms (18 at the top, 9 at the bottom, 21 on the side). This corresponds to a density of 195 palms, which again exceeds the normal density for Tall type coconut palms.
If a distance of 14.3 m separates the groups of three palms, the hectare will contain 8x8 groups. Excluding border palms, this corresponds to a final density of 150 palms per hectare, a density close to that generally used for tall coconut palms. This is the expert recommended spacing method for the GPH3 design.
Représentation d'un hectare de plantation G3PH avec un espacement de 14.3 m entre les groupes d'arbres
The G3PH planting scheme with a distance of 14.3 m between groups of palm trees corresponds to a density of 150 palm trees per hectare. According to the experts, the three palms of the same group could be planted closer to the distance of 2 m recommended in GPH3. Even when multiple shoots emerge from the same coconut, the resulting palms bend and move away from each other.
3. Towards new planting designs: G4K1? G3K1?
In February 2018, Dr R. Bourdeix formulated another related method by merging two concepts, This method could be even more efficient than the GP3H method. It is yet never tested, but it could be the best planting technique for coconut-based inter cropping.
The first concept came up when studying the methods for selecting parent palms in Tall-type populations. It appears that most of the methods used in the Pacific region for selecting parent palms are only conservative, meaning that the progeny has the same genetic value than the parent palms. With Vijendra Kumar from Fiji, we proposed a better method for selecting parent palms. This method, based on fruit analysis, allows a genetic progress of 5 to 10% on the progeny. Even if this better method is applied, the genetic progress will so remain quite limited. But: If the efficiency of selection on parent palms remain limited, when the palms are planted and start to produce, it is much more easy to see which ones are the good producers and which one are the bad producers. So the first concept was to plant about 33% more coconut palms than initially planted (plant 4 instead of 3), and to kill 25 % of the worst palms during the first years of production (From 4 kill 1). By this way, the farmer will avoid the burden of keeping in her/his farm the less productive coconut palms and for 50 years. When the farmer will reproduce its coconut palms, the worst palms will be excluded from pollination, giving a better progeny for future plantations.
The second concept is G3PH, "Group of three palms per hill" as described up. in G3PH, palms are planted three by three in a triangle design, at a 2 m distance, and each triangle is located at a 10 m distance from the next triangle by in a global square design.
Merging the two concepts suggests a new technique: to plant groups of 4 palms, at each corner in a square design sized 1.8 m. The centre of each 4-palms square is located at a 10 m distance from the centre of next 4-palms square in a global square design. The palms are planted and carefully observed by the farmers. Then, after 4 to 7 years of planting, farmers make decision and kill one palm (the less productive) in each of the square groups of 4 palms. Coconut hearts and leaves of the killed palms can be used by the farmer or sold..
